What is Goal-Setting?
“I think goals should never be easy, they should force you to work, even if they are uncomfortable at the time.” — Michael Phelps.
In Part 1 of this series on how to pursue goals and attain them, we examined why it is so difficult for people to achieve their goals. In Part 2, we defined goals based on research findings. We defined and differentiated key terms that are sometimes used interchangeably as goals. This is Part 3, and, in this part, we will examine Goal-Setting Theory and the most popular methods of setting goals today
As a result of the influence and the popularity of the SMART method of goal-setting, it is likely that when any reference is made to goal-setting, the first thing that comes to mind is that acronym. But the question is what does goal-setting mean and what do we have to do when setting goals? Is goal-setting a general phrase that includes goal attainment or is goal-setting a separate activity from activities specifically designed to activate goal attainment?
There is no generally accepted definition of goal-setting by researchers. The Goal-Setting Theory discussed below only identifies the components of goals that can facilitate attainment, but it has not defined goal-setting. However, The Cambridge Dictionary defines goal-setting as “the process of deciding what you want to achieve or what you want someone else to achieve over a particular period.”, (goal setting, n.d.). The American Psychological Association Dictionary of Psychology (APA) defines it as “a process that establishes specific, time-based behaviour targets that are measurable, achievable, and realistic. In work-related settings, for example, this practice usually provides employees with both (a) a basis for motivation, in terms of effort expended, and (b) guidelines or cues to behaviour that will be required if the goal is to be met. Goal setting is effective only if individuals concerned are aware of what is to be accomplished and accept the goals for themselves, believing in their attainability.”, (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.). In terms of learning, “Broadly defined, goal setting is the process of establishing clear and usable targets, or objectives, for learning.”, (Moeller, Theiler and Wu, 2011).
The Process of Goal Setting
Bailey, (2017) defines goal-setting as “…. the process by which one identifies specific goals and determines how they will be achieved.” According to him, recent research on goal-setting has provided strategies for helping people set and achieve desired goals. Such strategies are deciding on the goal to pursue, considering the characteristics of goals when setting goals and deciding on implementation plans.
Deciding on the Goal to Pursue
According to the definition above, goal-setting is the process of deciding on a specific goal to pursue and how it will be achieved. In other words, before setting goals, there must be a goal intention first. So, goal-setting is about stating this intention and how it will be achieved. This is different from taking action to achieve the goal. The two previous definitions above by The Cambridge Dictionary and The American Psychological Association Dictionary of Psychology are in agreement with this assertion because they state that goal-setting is the process of deciding and establishing what a person wants to achieve. Moeller, Theiler and Wu (2011), confirm this by stating that a goal is the “process of establishing clear and usable targets, or objectives, for learning.”, in terms of a learning goal.
Considering the Goal Characteristics
Considering the goal characteristics when setting goals is important as this will determine the kinds of actions to be taken to facilitate goal attainment. For example, is the goal about actions to take or actions to be avoided (approach versus avoidance goals)? Does it require focusing on measurable outcomes or on skills to be developed (performance versus mastery goals)? Or is it a challenging or or an easy goal etc.?
Deciding on implementation plans
Intention precedes action, and so, to turn intentions into actions one must act on the intentions to change behaviour and attain the goals. This requires creating action plans that will facilitate goal attainment. These action plans are known as implementation intentions in the research literature and will be discussed in Part 6. So, setting goals and planning the actions to be taken to achieve them are not the same thing, though one leads to the other.
The research literature generally divides the whole goal pursuit process into two main phases or processes: goal setting and goal striving, unlike the SMART method which puts everything into that formula as if goal setting and goal attainment are covered by all the processes it prescribes. We will talk about the goal pursuit process fully in Parts 4, 5 and 6 of these articles.
In addition, to attain goals, what needs to be done to facilitate motivation and commitment such as self-regulatory strategies, learning activities in the case of learning goals and feedback methods must also be put in place.
The ways goals are set or approached can be divided into two main ways: the scientific approach and the traditional methods. For ease of reference, we call the methods of goal setting that are not based on research findings the traditional method.
The Scientific Method
Dr Edwin A. Locke, an American psychologist and a retired Dean’s Professor of Motivation and Leadership Emeritus at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park, is widely recognised as the pioneer in goal-setting theory. We will now briefly discuss this theory and the main goal-setting methods in use today.
Dr Edwin A. Locke is widely recognised as the pioneer in goal-setting theory. Dr Locke was already prominent for his workplace research. In 1968, he published his groundbreaking article “Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives” which summarised research on the relationship between goals and task performance. The results indicate that hard goals lead to a higher level of performance than easy goals and that specific, hard goals lead to better performance. It is also argued that money, time limits, feedback, participation, and praise may affect performance through their effects on goal setting.
As Locke’s goal-setting theory caught the attention of Dr Gary Latham, now Secretary of State Professor of Organisational Behaviour at the Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto, he decided to test it. He found a tangible and crucial link between goal setting and task performance.
Locke and Latham’s Five Principles of Setting Goals
Later, they collaborated and in 1990 they published their famous book, “A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance”, in which they set out what is now known as Locke and Latham’s Goal Setting Theory (Locke and Latham 1990). The Theory explains the mechanisms by which goals influence behaviour, and how the behaviour can be moderated by goal characteristics. These goal characteristics have become the five principles of goal setting which are summarised below.
- Clarity. A clear goal is one that is not vague and can be measured without any misunderstanding as the result desired. It should be very explicit regarding what behaviour is desired and will be rewarded.
- Challenge. Goals are meant to change behaviour and enhance wellbeing. So, a goal should be challenging enough to motivate behaviour but must still be achievable.
- Commitment. Goals need to be agreed upon to ensure commitment in line with the resources available. The reward must also be agreed upon.
- Feedback. Feedback is necessary for monitoring progress and making any corrections where needed. It also increases motivation.
- Task complexity. Task complexity affects task performance and can affect motivation. Task performance can be optimized by first considering task complexity when setting a timeline. A person must be allowed enough time to meet a goal expectation. Highly complex goals can become overwhelming for people. For such goals, people need to be provided sufficient time to work toward the goal, improve performance, practice, or learn what is necessary for success. It is important to consider the complexity and difficulty of your goal and modify it accordingly. It may be helpful to break your goal into smaller or sub-goals or decrease the difficulty of the goal through other means such as time extension or by incorporating learning in the goal pursuit process.
WOOP
WOOP is the acronym for:
- W – Wish
- O – Outcome
- O – Obstacle
- P – Plan
WOOP is developed by psychologist, Gabriele Oettingen, a professor of psychology at New York University and the University of Hamburg. She is one of the world’s leading researchers and experts on goals, self-regulation, motivation, and future-oriented thinking. Her many years of research on future thought on cognition, emotion and behaviour are summarised in her book “Rethinking Positive Thinking”
You can find out more about WOOP by visiting the website here
How Does It Work?
Dreams can become reality, but it involves combining mental contrasting with if-then plans, sometimes known as implementation intentions (MCII). The obstacles that impede us from fulfilling our dreams can help us to realize them if we can imagine them and create a plan for dealing with them when they arise.
According to motivational gurus, one of the secrets of achieving our goals is to focus on them because if we focus on our goals, we will succeed in achieving them. The suggestion here is not to do away with dreaming and positive thinking. But the idea that we should not be negative by thinking about the obstacles is the problem. It is not likely that this kind of optimism can work for most people because it does not take into account potential challenges both internal and external that people may encounter.
WOOP is a technique of Mental Contrasting (Oettingen and Reininger, 2016). The technique works by comparing your dreams or the wish you want to come true with the reality of where you are now in relation to your dreams. As you experience the contrast between your dreams and where you are, it induces action because you can see clearly that you will not get to when you want to be unless you start taking action to remove the obstacles.
Components of WOOP
- Wish. Many of us dream. Some dreams are mere fantasies, but others are about things that are important to us and that we would love to do. This is the kind of wish that WOOP is interested in. It should be both challenging and feasible, something you know that can be done and has to be your choice, not something that someone else wishes or dreams for you.
- Outcome. Now you can visualise the best possible outcome that would result from accomplishing your goal. It is better to close your eyes and imagine what it will be like to have this wish come true. How would you feel? Create a sensory-specific experience of this outcome in your mind. What will you see, feel, and hear when you have your goal? Who will you be? What will you be doing? What will you have? In other words, identify and imagine your outcome and the relevant events and experiences connected to that outcome, as vividly as possible, as though you’re watching your future self on a TV or movie screen. Make the movie as compelling as you can to the mind. Who will celebrate with you? Then, return to wherever you are in real life and write down some of these imaginations and visualizations.
- Obstacle. Next, imagine and visualize what will be your biggest obstacles. WOOP specifically states that this should be an internal obstacle. An internal obstacle is something that will come up inside of you that could hinder your progress. These may be your habits, beliefs, psychologies etc. Most people will agree that fear is one of the biggest internal obstacles that we must face when pursuing a goal. Whatever it may be, it is important to identify it so that you can deal with it.
- Plan. After imagining your dreams and the possible obstacles that could hinder you, it is now time to make your plan. planning is important because it enables you to make a concrete decision about how you will overcome the obstacles that might arise. Identifying and naming potential obstacles is essential to confronting them so that when they arise, you will already be emotionally and mentally prepared for them. Knowing barriers that you might face and whether they can be overcome is undoubtedly the best way to develop coping strategies. The great thing about it is that it forces you to think, ask and answer questions in a way that will help you find solutions.
Application of WOOP
That kind of plan is known as an “if/then plan”. An example is “If this obstacle which we can call obstacle X occurs, (when and where), then I will perform y, the goal-directed behaviour to overcome the obstacle.”
MCII interventions have been used in the following four different goal domains (Wang, Wang and Gai, 2021):
- Academic domain, such as preparing for high-stakes exams and completing online courses.
- The health domain, such as physical activity, a healthy diet and stress management.
- The relationship domain, such as romantic relationships and conformity.
- Personal goal domain, including goals that were not limited to a specific goal domain.
- Personal time management.
WOOP is a scientifically proven strategy for attaining goals. It is not just a method of attaining goals but the science behind it has to be understood in order to appreciate it and apply it properly. We will talk again about WOOP in Part 6.
The Traditional Methods
The SMART Goals
We have already discussed the SMART method of setting goals. It is a trendy and most popularised method of setting goals today and it may be the reason that many people don’t set or achieve their goals as discussed in Part 1 as setting goals is synonymous with this method.
The SMART acronym stands for:
- S = Specific. Enough to understand what they are focused on.
- M = Measurable – to know whether they have been achieved or not
- A = Achievable – can it be achieved based on our capabilities and resources available?
- R = Realistic. It is relevant and likely to be achieved based on facts or is it just false hope?
- T = Time-based –assigned time period as to when the objective should be achieved.
Some people have extended it to “SMARTER” by adding adding “Evaluate” and “Readjust”. It remains to be seen whether these additions will go down well.
The Big Hairy Audacious Goal”) BHAG Model
BHAG is pronounced as “bee-hag” and stands for “Big Hairy Audacious Goals.” The term was invented in 1994 by Jim Collins and Jerry Porras in their popular book “Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies.”
A Big Hairy Audacious Goal (BHAG) is an inspiring, long-term goal that takes you to the next level and takes 10-25 years to complete:
- B – Big. It is such a big and ambitious goal that it cannot be completed before 10 years. It takes a minimum of 10 years to complete.
- H – Hairy. It does not seem easy but wild, crazy, and frightening but exciting. It is forward-looking and something that causes innovation.
- A – Audacious. It is something that seems impossible because it can’t be achieved easily or quickly.
- G – Goal. It must have been clearly articulated for it to be transformational so that its success can be measured and celebrated.
Categories of BHAG
There are four broad categories of BHAG:
- Role Model. Here, you would emulate the traits of another well-known and highly successful company. For example, you might aim to become the Uber or Nike of your industry.
- Common Enemy. The intention is to overcome the top companies in your industry to become the leader yourself.
- Targeting. This type of BHAG is about setting a clearly defined quantitative or qualitative goal, such as becoming a billion-dollar company or No. 1 in the industry.
- Internal transformation. This category is usually best for a large, established company seeking to overhaul its systems, processes, or positioning.
The most cited example of the application of BHAG is the US Apollo 11 moon mission which became a reality in 1969, eight years after President John F. Kennedy declared the U.S. would put a man on the moon. It is also said that Microsoft built itself around the BHAG with its mission of “a computer on every desk and in every home,” which seemed improbable in 1975. Google is also said to have adopted the same strategy as its mission “to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful” has become a reality.
HARD Goals
The idea of setting hard or difficult goals has been central to the research on goal-setting. For example, research has shown that the highest level of effort occurred when a goal was moderately difficult than when the goal was very easy or very hard (Locke and Latham, 2002). However, the term “HARD” here is not about the level of goal difficulty, it is an acronym for creating goals that will activate your brain for extraordinary results.
The HARD method of setting goals is created by Mark Murphy, in his book Hard Goals: The Secret to Getting from Where You Are to Where You Want to Be. He is the founder and CEO of Leadership IQ, a top-rated provider of leadership training for Microsoft, IBM, MasterCard, Merck, and other companies. He is the author of 100 Percenters and has been featured in Fortune, Forbes, Businessweek, The Washington Post, and other publications.
Meaning of HARD
HARD stands for:
- H – Heartfelt. You are more likely to pursue any goal you have a strong connection with. It should be all that your heart desires, as the saying goes.
- A – Animated. Visualize what achieving your goal would be like. To connect with your goals in a better way, you need to be more animated with your visualization. The stronger and clearer this vision gets, the more focused you will be on working towards these goals.
- R – Required. How is the goal necessary in your journey to success. Clearly articulate why this goal is required and if it will make an impact in your personal or professional life or both. It proves as a stronger motivation.
- D – Difficult. these goals should be ambitious and push one away from his or her comfort zone. Goals that require you to learn new skills or go for challenges that previously intimidated you. It is the only way of making sure you become the best version of yourself.
The OKR Method
The OKR method was created by Andy Grove, an engineer and CEO of Intel Corporation. However, it was popularized by John Doerr, who was one of the earliest investors in Google. Consequently, it soon became central to Google’s culture as a management methodology that helps to ensure that the company focuses efforts on the same important issues throughout the organization. Well-known companies, most of them in the technology industry adopt this method such as LinkedIn, Twitter, Dropbox, Spotify, Airbnb and Uber.
The acronym which stands for Objectives and key results (OKR) is designed to help organizations define goals, in this case, objectives and then track the outcome. It is designed to help organizations establish far-reaching goals in days instead of months.
Which Method Is Preferable?
The BHAG Method
A BHAG goal is a goal that shoots for the moon. For a business, it is usual and appropriate to have an audacious goal spanning over 10 years, but for individuals, this can be difficult, except in cases where it is used for a whole lifetime goal. One problem with this method is discouragement and lack of resources to stay committed to such an audacious project. For a company or where a group of people are involved, they can encourage each other when things are off course, but for individuals, it can be difficult to stay focused. For example, imagine a line manager or supervisor setting an audacious goal to become the CEO of his or her company. This will take a lot of motivation, commitment and courage to maintain focus and not give up.
HARD Goals
The HARD Goals method is appealing. According to Mark Murphy, the creator of HARD Goals, this method, compared to SMART goals has an upper hand in that “HARD Goals make people stronger, more courageous, and more confident to go after bigger and better things.”
In one of his studies, it was found that using SMART goals had no meaningful correlation with employees achieving great things. By contrast, the characteristics of HARD Goals of being “Heartfelt”, “Animated”, “Required” and “Difficult” light up the “brain and encourage great performance” compared to SMART goals that leave someone stuck in the status-quo because of their attributes of being achievable and realistic (Murphy, 2017).
The HARD Goals method starts with making sure that goals are congruent with your values because there is a difference between wanting something and needing it. In this way, it embeds enough drivers and motivators into the process to ensure commitment and persistence since your goal has to be something you feel emotional about so that you can have much more energy and commitment to see it through.
The OKR Method
The OKR method is appropriate for businesses. According to Harvard Business Review, OKRs are an effective method for planning and measuring the success of teams. When it comes to applying them to individuals, they are not effective because they generally lead to goals that are not true indications of meaningful progress. Also, they can be easily manipulated. In other words, they fall short of assessing individual contributions to the team’s progress and how this adds value to the business (Gothelf, 2020).
Goal setting is not only about the method and the results but also the process. In fact, the process may even be more beneficial than the method and the results for future goal-setting activities. The focus on methods seems to be the problem with the SMART goals because the term is trendy.
A lot of research has gone into goal setting, maybe even more than any other subject. These studies have identified the main things that affect goal attainment, but research findings have been overlooked. We will talk more about Locke and Latham’s Five Principles of Setting Goals and what current research says about goal setting and attainment in subsequent articles.
References
Bailey, R., 2017. Goal Setting and Action Planning for Health Behavior Change. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 13(6), pp.615-618.
Dictionary.apa.org. n.d. APA Dictionary of Psychology. [online] Available at: <https://dictionary.apa.org/goal-setting> [Accessed 17 June 2022].
Dictionary.cambridge.org. n.d. goal setting. [online] Available at: <https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/goal-setting> [Accessed 17 June 2022].
Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a S.M.A.R.T. Way to Write Management’s Goals and Objectives. Management Review, 70, 35-36.
Haughey, D., 2014. A Brief History of SMART Goals. [online] Project Smart. Available at: <https://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals/brief-history-of-smart-goals.php> [Accessed 15 March 2022].
Jimcollins.com. n.d. Jim Collins – Concepts – BHAG. [online] Available at: <https://www.jimcollins.com/concepts/bhag.html> [Accessed 3 April 2022].
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Locke, E. and Latham, G., 2002. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), pp.705-717.
Moeller, A., Theiler, J. and Wu, C., 2011. Goal Setting and Student Achievement: A Longitudinal Study. The Modern Language Journal, 96(2), pp.153-169.
Murphy, M., 2017. HARD Goals, Not SMART Goals, Are The Key To Career Development. [online] Forbes. Available at: <https://www.forbes.com/sites/markmurphy/2017/06/11/hard-goals-not-smart-goals-are-the-key-to-career-development/?sh=29099e2870fb> [Accessed 5 April 2022].
Oettingen, G., and Reininger, K. M. (2016), The power of prospection: mental contrasting and behaviour change, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, doi: 10.1111/spc3.12271
Wang G, Wang Y and Gai X (2021). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions on Goal Attainment. Front. Psychol. 12:565202. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.565202
White, S., 2018. What is OKR? A goal-setting framework for thinking big. [online] CIO. Available at: <https://www.cio.com/article/222203/okr-objectives-and-key-results-defined.html> [Accessed 5 April 2022].