How to Set Goals and Attain Them Part 7

“My will shall shape my future. Whether I fail or succeed shall be no man’s doing but my own. I am the force; I can clear any obstacle before me or I can be lost in the maze. My choice; my responsibility; win or lose, only I hold the key to my destiny.” – Elaine Maxwell

By Kenneth Ukoh, Updated 10 February 2026

Over the last 15 years, research on self-regulation has grown considerably and much media attention has been given to it (Lazuras, Psilanti and Powell et al., 2019). Some researchers have described self-regulation as the greatest strength of humans and the key to success in life (Baumeister et al. 2002). As we shall see in this article and the subsequent ones on self-regulation, there is overwhelming evidence that effective self-regulation promotes better performance, personal growth, and well-being.

Research has shown that personal goals make an important contribution to the quality of life of people because they provide purpose for living, drive behaviour and cause successful long-term development (Wrosch, Scheier and Miller, 2013), and goal attainment is a major benchmark for the experience of wellbeing (Emmons, 2003).

So, self-regulation of goals affects the quality of life because it can make a big difference in life. It can be the difference between failure and success or between excellence and mediocrity. It can even be the difference between life and death. In their article “Self-Regulation as A Key to Success in Life”, Baumeister et el. (2002) state “, Success in life was defined by Doiores Pushkar at the 1996 Concordia Conference on Competence Through the Life span as a matter of being able to live with oneself and to live with others. If self-regulation is indeed a key to success in life, then it should improve people’s ability to live with themselves and others.”

Roy F. Baumeister, PhD., is one of the world’s most influential and most cited psychologists. He is a Professor of Psychology. He is currently president-elect of the International Positive Psychology Association and has ties to the University of Queensland (Australia), Florida State University (USA), and the University of Bamberg (Germany). He is especially known for his work on willpower, self-control, and self-esteem, and how they relate to human morality and success.

Effective self-regulation depends on three ingredients. First, one must have clear standards, clear goals or ideals. Second, one must monitor oneself consistently and track one’s behaviour. Third, one must have the wherewithal to produce the necessary changes in oneself, including willpower (for direct change) or knowledge of effective strategies (for indirect efforts, such as for changing emotions). Problems in any area can impair self-regulation.

What Is Self-Regulation?

According to Inzlicht et al. (2021), “Self-regulation is a boon to the well-functioning person, if not a well-functioning society. With connections between self-regulation and outcomes as disparate as health, longevity, criminality, financial savings, job performance, and relationship satisfaction (to name but a few), it is no wonder the lay public and scholars alike are keen to understand and cultivate it (Baumeister, Heatherton & Tice, 1994; Moffitt et al., 2011). This quote shows the importance of self-regulation.

There are various self-regulation models. This is not surprising as self-regulation is a broad term that is concerned with the ability to achieve a certain outcome and can be approached from various fields (Inzlicht et al., 2021). However, since we are concerned with goal pursuit, Inzlicht et al. (2021) define it as a “Dynamic process of determining desired endpoint (or end state) and then taking action to move toward it while monitoring progress along the way.” Leduc-Cummings, Werner & Milyavskaya (2017) define it as “The psychological process by which a person strives to attain valued outcomes. Self-regulation consists of all manner of goal setting and goal pursuit, which can be accomplished through both effortful control of behaviour and effortless, automatic, or habitual forms of goal-directed behaviour. The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine (3 ed.) defines it as “The regulation of one’s own goal-directed behaviour without immediate external control. In sport, self-regulation involves an athlete taking control of and responsibility for his or her own training, performance, and participation in sport” (Kent, 2007). Cavadel, et al, (2016), define it “as a set of skills that allow us to intentionally control thoughts, emotions, and behaviour” (Blair and Raver 2012; Murray et al. 2015). The term “self-regulation” is sometimes used interchangeably with the term “executive function.” Recognising that “executive function” has been defined differently across diverse strands of literature (Jones et al. 2016), in this report, we use “self-regulation” as an umbrella term that includes executive function and broader, related skills. These definitions are directly related to the definition of a goal in Part 2 of these articles. While three definitions describe it in terms of achieving an outcome, one defines it in terms of skills that can enable an outcome to be achieved.

Main Benefits of Self-Regulation

Regarding how self-regulation improves a person’s life, Baumeister et el. (2002) add that it has the following main benefits:

Self-regulation helps people to control their emotional states and moods, which enhances successful daily living.
It enables the control of mental processes such as the ability to concentrate and be persistent, which also contributes to success in life.
Self-regulation enables people to control impulses such as resisting temptations of addiction, which also contributes to a successful life.
Self-regulation enables people to select, set and achieve goals, which also contributes to success in life.
It allows people to learn about motivation and persistence despite setbacks, which are skills that are essential to success in life.

However, people are different. Some people can manage themselves well and can inhibit distractions or unhealthy behaviour. Others are unable to do the same. For example, some people drink alcohol within the limits of their tolerance, while others are involved in binge drinking. There is even a new drinking terminology known as “high-intensity drinking”. High-intensity drinking is defined by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services “…as drinking two or three times as much alcohol (e.g., 10+ or 15+ drinks) as a typical binge episode, suggest that it is far riskier and has major implications for individual and community health” (Patrick and Azar, 2018).

Research by the University of Chicago shows that in 2010, alcohol misuse cost the United States $249 billion, and each year an estimated 95,000 people die from alcohol-related causes. In 2019, alcohol was a factor in 28% of all driving fatalities (Searcy, 2021). Despite this, people continue to drink heavily.

The effectiveness of self-regulation is influenced by a combination of individual and environmental factors such as age, skills, motivation, culture, support, psychological strengths, etc. and environmental context. These factors interact to support self-regulation and create opportunities for intervention.

So, self-regulation is a struggle for many people, both children and adults alike. It can be found in many activities that can make people happy, successful, miserable, and unsuccessful in life. However, it can be learned or strengthened like most skills. With focused awareness, support, and opportunities for practice, they are essential skills that can be developed.

In this article, we are mainly interested in the self-regulation of goal pursuit as the two are directly related. These articles on self-regulation are divided into four parts. This is Part 7, which deals with the definitions and models of self-regulation. Part 8 will examine the causes of self-regulation failure and effective self-regulatory skills that can be learned. Part 9 will examine emotion regulation, and Part will examine other theories related to self-regulation that can facilitate goal attainment.

Differences Between Self-Control, Cognitive Control and Self-Discipline?

Self-regulation is sometimes used interchangeably with self-control. It is also important to differentiate it from other related terms, such as cognitive control and self-discipline. For example, (Vohs and Baumeister, 2004) in their Handbook of Self-Regulation use the two terms interchangeably. However, Vohs and Baumeister (2004), recognise that “some researchers make subtle distinctions between the two (such as by using “self-regulation’ more broadly to refer to goal-directed behaviour or to feedback loops, whereas “self-control” may be associated specifically with conscious impulse control).” Self-control is widely regarded as a personality trait and is often used interchangeably with personality traits such as “conscientiousness”, “orderliness”, “responsibility” and “industriousness” (Duckworth, 2011).

So, self-regulation is an umbrella term that includes the entire process of goal pursuit. Only a small part of it includes self-control (Gillebaart, 2018; Milyavskaya et al., 2018). According to Werner and Milyavskaya (2019), the need for self-control is specifically important when an individual is faced with a decision to choose between competing options, for example, choosing a pleasurable outcome now even though it conflicts with long-term goals.

The APA Dictionary of Psychology also takes this view in its definition of self-control as it defines self-control as “the ability to be in command of one’s behaviour (overt, covert, emotional, or physical) and to restrain or inhibit one’s impulses. In circumstances in which short-term gain is pitted against long-term greater gain, self-control is the ability to opt for the long-term outcome. Choice of the short-term outcome is called impulsiveness” (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.).

Cognitive control is described by Dixon (2015) as “the intentional selection of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours based on current task demands and social context, and the concomitant suppression of inappropriate habitual actions” (Miller and Cohen, 2001). Common situations that require cognitive control include studying for an exam while resisting the impulse to check Facebook, having fruit instead of dessert when on a diet, and being patient with one’s kids instead of yelling at them for spilling juice on the carpet.

According to Moore (2020), in psychological literature, self-discipline is often used interchangeably with self-control or willpower as an “effortful regulation of the self by the self” (Duckworth, 2011, p. 2639). It is also defined as “the ability to suppress prepotent responses in the service of a higher goal… and that such a choice is not automatic but rather requires conscious effort” (Duckworth & Seligman, 2006, p. 199). Self-discipline is oriented towards successful performance outcomes by overcoming impediments.

However, with the emergence of research on effortless self-regulation and self-control, which we will discuss later in this article, new insights have emerged regarding self-regulation and self-control.

Self-Regulation and Goal Pursuit

Most literature on self-regulation associates it with goals. For instance, in the West, self-regulation is considered by many psychologists in relation to human goal-oriented activities (Ozhiganova, 2018). This is not surprising because the definition of self-regulation, as shown above, is similar to that of a goal.

In the previous articles, especially Part 6 on self-concordant goals, we have shown how goals are inherently parts of human life as they reflect one’s purpose, values and interests, and they involve establishing standards or objectives to serve as the aim of one’s actions. Goals are involved across the different phases of self-regulation because self-regulation involves directing one’s behaviour toward desired end states.

Self-regulation, therefore, includes not only the regulation of behaviour but also of thoughts and emotions. Concerning goal pursuit, self-regulation includes a wide range of activities such as:

Deciding which goal to pursue
Planning how to pursue it
Implementing these plans
Shielding goals from competing concerns
And sometimes even abandoning goals

In connection with learning, Ramdass and Zimmerman (2011) state that self-regulation involves setting goals, selecting and using strategies, monitoring performance, and repeatedly reflecting on learning outcomes over a lengthy period of time. They also state that self-regulation operates through three areas of psychological functioning that are essential in learning:

Cognitive, for example, learning strategies.
Motivational, for example, self-efficacy and task value.
Metacognitive, for example, self-monitoring and self-reflection.

According to them, these three areas of self-regulation operate cyclically, and mastery of a task depends on self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capability to learn or perform effectively (Bandura, 1986). For example, students who are self-efficacious believe that homework completion will lead to successful learning outcomes. High self-efficacy and high expectations of success would lead to persistence, using different strategies, or seeking help when faced with difficult homework tasks.

Theories and Models of Self-Regulation

Self-regulation literature sometimes refers to self-regulation theory or theories, but according to Sugitani (2008), though self-regulation has been widely researched in different areas, it lacks a coherent and fully agreed-upon understanding of the term (Zimmerman, 2000). The concept of self-regulation arises from Social Cognitive Theory, which evolved from the Social Learning Theory developed by Albert Bandura (Voorhees et al., 2020). Reference to self-regulation theory (SRT) seems to be about the ingredients of self-regulation discussed below (Ackerman, 2018).

The Social Cognitive Theory was developed by Bandura in 1986 with the launch of his book, “Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.” Behavioural psychologists then focused on how the environment and reinforcement affect behaviour. Bandura proposed that individuals can learn behaviours through observation. The Social Cognitive Theory emphasises the dynamic interaction between environmental factors, human behaviour, and cognitive processes. The theory addresses four basic capabilities: symbolising capability, self-regulation capability, self-reflective capability, and vicarious capability (Margolis, May-Varas, and Mead, 2022).

Bandura (1991) views self-regulation as a self-governing system operating through a set of three psychological subfunctions as follows:

One’s behaviour. This provides the information needed for setting performance standards and for evaluating one’s progress toward them.
Evaluation of behaviour. Evaluation of behaviour against standards, which is the judgment of one’s behaviour in relation to personal standards and environmental circumstances.
Affective self-reactions. Affective self-reactions to one’s judged performances. Self-reactions provide the means for regulating courses of action through standards.

Another theory that is sometimes referred to in connection with self-regulation is the self-regulated learning (SRL) theory, which is mainly about self-regulation in education. The model frequently referred to by researchers is Zimmerman’s SRL model (Brenner, 2022). Zimmerman (2002), refers to self-regulation as “…the self-directive process by which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills.” He adds that self-regulation of learning is not about a single personal trait that a student possesses but involves the adaptation of specific processes by a student to each learning task. The skills needed to do this are:

Setting specific proximal goals for oneself.
Adopting powerful strategies for attaining the goals.
Monitoring one’s performance selectively for signs of progress.
Restructuring one’s physical and social context to make it compatible with one’s goals.
Managing time efficiently.
Self-evaluation of one’s methods.
Attributing causation to results.
Adapting future methods.

These processes are not different from the processes of pursuing any goal, though the content may be different.

Components of Self-Regulation

According to Baumeister (2023), to “regulate” means not only to change something but to change to bring it in line with a specified idea, “such as a rule, a goal, a plan, or a moral principle, that helps people to adapt to what it should be. So, self-regulation involves monitoring and changing oneself by adapting responses to attain a desired end state or avoid an undesired end state.

Self-regulation involves regulating four broad categories of responses by people:

Controlling their thinking by trying to concentrate or shutting off unwanted intrusions from the mind.
Controlling emotions, by trying to stay calm or cheering up, or even staying angry if that is helpful.
Controlling impulses, for example, not overeating or not eating fattening food.
Controlling task performance, for example, continuing to work even when a person does not feel like it because of tiredness or discouragement.

Baumeister and Vohs (2007) identify four ingredients or components of self-regulation. These four components work together to determine self-regulatory activity or effort at any time, and they are standards, monitoring, self-regulatory strength and motivation.

Establishing Standards.

Standards are benchmarks. They are unambiguous measures representing the minimum level of effort, tasks and achievement expected daily or weekly, etc. Some people set goals along with corresponding standards to help them monitor their progress. Others prefer to have standards only and extend them, if need be, to get to where they want to be. Standards focus on performance and help to adapt to changes as circumstances change. Also, it may also involve using self-standards because in setting goals, it is important to understand the “self” used as a reference value.

Monitoring

Monitoring is referred to by Wagner and Heatherton (2015) as “the process whereby people keep track of their thoughts and behaviours with reference to their standards and long-term goals ((e.g., Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996; Carver & Scheier, 1981; Metcalfe &Mischel, 1999).”

The establishment of standards makes monitoring possible as comparison to standards enables people to regulate themselves by changing things that do not measure up to their standards.

According to Vohs and Baumeister (2004), in goal pursuit, goals serve as reference values in the feedback loops, which consist of four elements: an input, a reference value, a comparator, and an output. The types of feedback loops depend on whether the reference value or goal is an approach or an avoidance goal. An approach goal is the desired end state, while an avoidance goal is an undesired end state, which the individual wants to avoid or move away from.

Behaviour directed toward desired goals is regulated by a negative feedback loop. In this case, a reduction of the discrepancy between the current state (i.e., input) and the goal (i.e., reference value) dominates the individual’s actions. Behaviours involved in the avoidance of reference value, on the other hand, are controlled by a positive feedback loop. Thus, efforts are deployed to maintain or enlarge a discrepancy between the input and the reference value (Mora and Ozakinci, 2013). Avoiding an undesired state may require that individuals set desired goals. When goals are no longer attainable, abandoning activities directed at the pursuit of the goals will result in better adjustment than maintaining goal-directed efforts.

Self-Regulatory Strength/Self-Regulatory Fatigue

Ego depletion and self-regulatory fatigue are used synonymously. For example, self-regulatory fatigue is defined as “…the temporary depletion of individuals’ capacity for self-control. In a state of self-regulatory fatigue, individuals find it harder to resist making impulsive purchases, inhibit prejudice, or regulate their own emotions (an effect often termed “ego depletion”). Self-regulatory fatigue arises from the extended use of self-regulation, which is thought to be a limited resource” (Cameron and Webb, 2013).

The strength model of self-regulation or self-control has been criticised by some researchers. However, because research continues to support the usefulness of the model, new findings continue to emerge.

The idea behind the strength model of self-regulation is that self-regulation operates by consuming a limited energy resource, leading to a state called “ego depletion” in which volition is curtailed because of low energy. For example, energy and motivation are different. While motivation is the desire to engage in an activity, energy is the resource spent on the activity.

Though it is agreed that human energy is an important resource, researchers define energy in different ways. The same thing applies to energetic activation discussed below. However, by synthesising the different pieces of literature, Quinn, Spreitzer and Lam (2012) have identified two forms of human energy: physical energy and energetic activation. Based on physical and biological sciences, physical energy is defined as “the capacity to do work”. Physical energy may be potential energy, available energy that is not used or kinetic energy, a form of energy that an object or a particle has because of its motion. In the human body, Adenosine Triphosphate, (ATP) is the molecule that stores and releases it, and because of this, it is called the “energy currency” of the cell.

Energetic Activation

Energetic activation is defined as the subjective component of a “biobehavioural system of activation (Thayer, 1989; Watson et al., 1999, p. 847), which may be experienced as feelings of vitality, vigour, or enthusiasm Quinn, Spreitzer & Lam, 2012). Something is biobehavioural if it involves the interaction of behaviour and biological processes. According to Quinn, Spreitzer, and Lam (2012), energetic activation is also known as energetic arousal, positive activation, and emotional energy, to mention only four of them. The reasons stated for preferring “energetic activation” to other terms are:

The word “energetic” makes the connection to human energy explicit
Contemporary psychologists tend to use the word “activation” over other terms like “arousal”.

The original strength model of self-regulation assumed that energy operates like a kind of brain fuel, and so, after some is expended, there is not enough left anymore for other tasks. This is how ego depletion affects the performance of the second task. This was soon replaced by the idea of conservation (Muraven, Shmueli, & Burkley, 2006). The idea is that the body still has energy but, having expended some, seeks to conserve what remains. It can, however, still perform well when sufficiently motivated (Baumeister, Tice, & Vohs, Kathleen, 2018).

Recent work has indicated that blood glucose, which is the brain’s principal source of fuel, is an important component of this resource. Self-control activities consume substantial quantities of glucose, resulting in lower levels of it in the bloodstream (Gailliot et al., 2007). However, further studies have shown that glucose has some role, but that is likely not the full story. Beedie and Lane (2012) and others are of the view that the human body still has plenty of reserves of glucose even after severe exertion, but the question is to allocate this resource based on the priority of what the body needs.

Studies are continuing, and it is now known that self-regulation involves the allocation and conservation of energy and glucose processes (Baumeister, Tice & Vohs, 2018).

Motivation

Motivation is a broad concept that has been defined from different perspectives, such as the Expectancy Value Theory, Attribution Theory, Social – Cognitive Theory, Goal Orientation Theory and Self-Determination Theory (Cook and Artino Jr., 2016). However, the definition by The Oxford Review of the Encyclopaedia of Terms aligns with our article here since we are interested in the self-regulation of goal pursuit. It defines motivation as “the psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s level of effort and a person’s level of persistence in the face of obstacles” (The Oxford Review Encyclopaedia of Terms, n.d.). According to Ryan & Deci (2000), “To be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is thus characterisedas unmotivated, whereas someone who is energised or activated toward an end is considered motivated.”

Richard Ryan and Edward Deci are the creators of the Self-Determination Theory, which has become the dominant and most comprehensive theory of motivation. One of the mini theories of Self-Determination Theory is Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), which identifies intrinsic and extrinsic motivations as the two types of motivations that drive behaviour. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable (a behaviour driven by internal reward), and extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome (a behaviour driven by external rewards) (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When a person is doing something that lacks both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, this is known as “amotivation “. For example, the person does not find engaging in such an activity worthwhile. It is also known as “avolition.” According to (Lee et al., 2015), “Amotivation, also known as avolition, is a psychological condition defined as “a reduction in the motivation to initiate or persist in goal-directed behaviour”. Motivation enables an individual to sustain rewarding value of an action into an uncertain future. Thus, amotivation affects the subjective and behavioural aspects of goal-directed activity” (Lee et al., 2015).

Another important contribution of Self-Determination Theory to goal pursuit is the distinction between autonomous goals pursued for want-to reasons and controlled goals. Autonomous goals reflect personal interests and values, whereas controlled goals are pursued because one feels compelled or obligated to do so because of pressures.

We talked about SDT in Part 5 when we discussed self-concordant goals. We will discuss SDT and motivation more in Part 10 when we examine other theories and models related to self-regulation.

Overview of Self-Regulation and Goal Pursuit

Most literature on self-regulation links it with goals. For instance, in the West, self-regulation is considered by many psychologists in relation to human goal pursuit (Ozhiganova, 2018). Research by the University of California, Davis, reveals that people formulate goals that are consistent with their personality traits in most cases and an individual’s goals are related to subsequent changes in their personality over time. This suggests that age is an important factor that determines the goals people value and pursue (University of California – Davis, 2020). This is not surprising because, as people age, their values change.

In the previous articles, especially Part 6 on self-concordant goals, we have shown how human beings are goal-oriented as goals reflect one’s purpose, values and interests. They involve establishing plans, standards or objectives to serve as the aim of one’s actions. Goals are involved across the different phases of self-regulation because self-regulation is about steering behaviour toward desired end states or goals. It also involves the regulation of thoughts and emotions, and all the activities that are directed towards achieving a goal.

Research has shown that goal pursuit can be divided into three main phases: goal setting, goal striving and goal disengagement (Oettingen et al., 2004). Consequently, the self-regulatory strategies adopted need to be designed to match each phase of the pursuit process.

Goal Setting and Self-regulation

The whole activities of goal pursuit based on the SMART method generally come under the heading of “goal-setting.” There is no distinction between the different phases of the goal-pursuit process. But scientifically, goal setting begins with deliberation, where “expectations and fantasies about the future are turned into binding goals” (Oettingen et al., 2004). Expectations are judgments of the likelihood of a specified future behaviour or outcome occurring. By contrast, free fantasies about the future are thoughts and images of the future in the mind, regardless of whether they are likely to occur or not.

So, goal setting is where the goal is framed, and the content, as well as the type or reasons for the goal, are stated in a way that maximises attainment. The type of goal may be approach or prevention goals, learning or performance goals, etc. The reason for these distinctions is that research has shown tha,t typically, approaching goals relative to avoidance goals contributes more to people’s well-being. For more explanation, see Part 4 of these articles on goal types.

According to Oettingen et al. (2004), three routes to goal setting have been identified regarding how people deal with their fantasies about the future. One route is based on expectancy, while the other two are not. This has to do with fantasy realisation theory, a strategy of self-regulation, which we will discuss later in this article. We discussed goal deliberation and selection in Part 6 on self-concordant goals.

Self-regulation of Goal Striving

Goal striving is the action phase where plans are implemented to achieve the desired state. This is where self-regulation really matters. So, people need to have a deeper understanding of the self-regulatory agent in the goal pursuit and the various challenges, conflicts and decisions that could be encountered and prepare for them.

Goal striving requires a strong commitment to guard against hindrances. The commonest among them are procrastination and lack of focus. These quotes sum them all up: “Procrastination is opportunity’s natural assassin,” – Victor Kiam and “The successful warrior is the average man, with laser-like focus.” — Bruce Lee

Research has shown that forming an implementation intention is a powerful self-regulatory strategy that alleviates such problems and thus promotes the execution of goal-directed behaviours. Implementation intentions will be discussed fully in Part 11, the concluding part of these articles.

Adaptive Self-Regulation – Goal Adjustment and Relinquishment

It is human nature not to be seen as a failure. Particularly in the West, the culture is to celebrate persistence and achievement. So, abandoning goals is seen as a failure (Russo, 2022). Research has shown that the ability to disengage from a goal and reengage in a new one can affect our health and well-being. For example, studies have shown that the ability to disengage is linked to lower cortisol levels and better immune function (Russo, 2022). This implies that the reverse would likely be the case due to an inability to disengage.

So, the ability to set and pursue goals irrespective of obstacles and know when to disengage when circumstances change is an important skill.

Cognitive and behavioural flexibility allow thoughts and behaviours to be adjusted accordingly when circumstances change. This is a self-regulatory skill that is part of the executive function of the brain (Uddin, 2021), and will be discussed later as part of the self-regulatory skills that we need for effective self-regulation.

Not all goals are attainable. There are many reasons for discontinuing to pursue a goal. According to Oettingen et al. (2004), goal abandonment may occur because a goal may no longer be feasible or desirable. These two factors may work together to indicate the need to terminate a goal. In addition, Wrosch et al. (2003) suggest that the following factors may reduce people’s opportunities to attain goals:

As a result of socio-structural, biological, and normative reasons, such as advancement in age or retirement age.
Important life transitions affect the choice of goals that people pursue, for example, leaving to pursue a career somewhere else.
The occurrence of negative or distressful life events or social structural arrangements such as the death of a close relative, a divorce, unemployment etc.
Since resources are limited, it becomes necessary to prioritise the investment of resources.
Some goals may become unattainable because of the lack of the skills needed to continue to pursue them.

According to Wrosch et al. (2003), the adaptive aspect of effective self-regulation is a person’s capacity to disengage effort and commitment from an unattainable goal and has the following advantages:

The experience of stagnation and the negative impact of pursuing a goal that cannot be attained may result in reduced well-being and increased psychological distress.
Disengagement from pursuing an unattainable goal may help a person avoid the distress of accumulated failure experiences.
When pursuing goals, flexibility is needed as things change. Using the “4 R” strategy of goal adjustment: review, re-evaluate, redefine, and re-engage is a good practice. Disengagement may help to redefine the goal as not necessary for life satisfaction.
For the long-term goals, disengagement from unattainable goals may free personal resources which can be used in other areas of life.

The Goal Adjustment Theory, The Goal Dual-Process Model of Goal Adjustment and the Integrated Model

Research has shown that there are three goal adjustment and disengagement strategies: goal adjustment theory, the goal dual-process model of goal adjustment and the integrated model of goal adjustment.

The Goal Adjustment Theory

The goal adjustment theory “identifies two processes that enable a person to adapt to the experience of unattainable goals: goal disengagement and goal reengagement” (Mens, Scheier and Wrosch, 2015). The essence of the theory is that, based on adaptive self-regulation as explained above, individuals need to disengage from unattainable goals and reengage in goals that are more feasible. The capacity for people to adapt in this way is referred to as the individual’s capacity for goal adjustment. The model recognises that individuals differ in their goal adjustment capacities, and this will in turn influence their quality of life.

The capacity for goal disengagement prevents negative psychological consequences of the perception of failure when goals are not attained. On the other hand, it leads to an improved capacity for goal re-engagement, which in turn bolsters well-being and consequent psychological adjustment (Wrosch, Scheier and Miller, 2013).

The Goal Dual-Process Model

The dual-process model of goal adjustment identifies two modes of goal adjustment in response to significant changes. These are the assimilative and accommodative modes. The assimilative mode shows a persistent effort to pursue the goals and adapt circumstances to goals. The accommodative mode is a flexible method the goals are adjusted to meet the circumstances.

According to this model. Where goals are viable, the assimilative mode of coping is optimal to maximise the chances of success. However, where the goal is not viable, the most adaptive response involves a shift from a predominantly assimilative to an accommodative coping mode. Failure to switch coping modes in circumstances where important life goals are no longer viable can produce feelings of helplessness and depression.

The Integrated Model

This model combines the two theories above. When there is a perception that a goal can still be attained, it is preferable to maintain the goal. Disengagement is preferred where a goal’s attainment is under threat. As already stated above, goal disengagement and re-engagement are the appropriate strategies to adopt when the situation warrants them.

According to Esteve et al. (2018), the model has been tested using a sample of patients with arthritis. Those reported with a lower tendency to adjust their goals had higher anxiety and depression scores. Those who reported a greater tendency to adjust their goals to changed circumstances experienced more purpose in life, more positive affect, and were more satisfied with their participation in daily life activities.

The Goal Adjustment Scale (GAS)

The GAS measures both people’s ability to disengage from unattainable goals and their ability to find and commit to alternative goals, as already discussed above.

This scale typically uses a 10-item self-report measure called the “Goal Disengagement and Goal Reengagement Scale” (Wrosch et al., 2003). According to Russo (2022), studies have shown that people who are better at disengaging from their goals “have better functioning endocrine and immune systems, better health behaviours and fewer physical problems. Those better at pursuing new goals are healthier and function better physically under emotional distress.”

Goal Disengagement and Energisation Theory

The energisation theory states that “the subjective perception of a goal’s value or attainability corresponds to the level of energy expended to reach that goal [proposed by Jack W. Brehm and colleagues) (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.) The Psychology Dictionary defines energisation as “The mental skill of revitalising us when we feel fatigued” (Sam, 2013).

The energisation theory has been developed by Jack W. Brehm and colleagues. It is about the mobilisation of energy depending on the attractiveness or unattractiveness of a goal. The idea is that the attractiveness or unattractiveness of a goal is directly associated with the level of energy mobilised to attain or avoid that goal. What a person perceives can and must be done to attain or avoid a goal is a determinant of energy.

According to Elliot (2023), motivation is what drives energisation and direction of behaviour. Simpson and Balsam (2016) define motivation as “the energising of behaviour in pursuit of a goal, is a fundamental element of our interaction with the world and with each other.” Energisation activates and orients us in the form of what we experience as a “desire, fear, interest, or concern”. Direction serves to channel and guide the general energisation toward specific outcomes, and it is commonly experienced as a goal, strategy, or tactic. Energisation and direction work together to produce observable behaviour. Ignoring the distinction between energisation and direction, or only focusing on one but not the other, leads to an unclear and/or incomplete explanation of behaviour (Elliot, 2023).

The level of energisation differs, depending on the relative difficulty of the goals. If the goals are easily attained or avoided, they tend to produce little energisation. By contrast, goals that are difficult to attain or avoid tend to have relatively high energisation. When the cost of attaining or avoiding a goal exceeds its potential value, an individual will intend to do little or nothing (Kukla, 1972), and little or no energisation will occur. Similarly, when a goal is literally impossible to attain or avoid, there will be no energisation because there is nothing to do. Thus, the attractiveness or unattractiveness of a goal tends to be low when it is either easy, too costly, or impossible to attain or avoid, and relatively high when it is difficult to attain or avoid (Wright & Brehm, 1989).

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Zimmerman, B.J., 2008. Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American educational research journal, 45(1), pp.166-183.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining Self-Regulation: A Social Cognitive Perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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Zimmerman, Barry. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory Into Practice. 41. 64-70. 10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2.

Goal Pursuit 1

Goal Pursuit 2

Goal Pursit 3

Goal Pursit 4

Psychological Resources

Personal Development and Growth

Change, Tansition and Transformation

Emotions and Mental Health.

How to Set Goals and Attain Them Part 7 – Self-Regulation.