“The emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four areas: identifying emotions, using emotions, understanding emotions, and regulating emotions.”
— John Mayer and Peter Salovey
By Kenneth Ukoh, Updated February 13 2026
Two research traditions have been developed to address emotion management. These are emotion regulation and emotional intelligence. Though they are related concepts, they differ in the following ways (MacCann, 2022):
- Emotion regulation is a process, whereas EI is a competence which differs between individuals.
- Emotional intelligence refers to the abilities or capacities people have, whereas emotion regulation refers to the behaviours people exhibit.
- People with higher emotional intelligence tend to use more effective emotion regulation strategies (such as engaging in problem-solving, changing their thoughts to be more positive, and seeking social support) and using fewer ineffective strategies (such as ruminating about a negative event or emotion, or avoiding addressing the emotion or cause of the emotion. They use emotion regulation flexibly.
- Emotional intelligence is broader as self-regulation is a facet of EI
Emotional Intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient (EQ), is a term coined by researchers John Mayer and Peter Salovey and made popular by Daniel Goleman with the release of his book of the same title in 1995.
The Professional and Executive Development, Harvard Division of Continuing Education, defines EI as “a set of skills that help us recognise, understand, and manage our own emotions as well as recognise, understand and influence the emotions of others” (Professional and Executive Development, Harvard Division of Continuing Education, 2019).
Models of Emotional Intelligence
EI is a trendy subject today, particularly in personal development and management, because it is widely regarded as the strongest predictor of performance, especially in leadership positions. A 2011 survey by CareerBuilder reveals that 71% of employers value emotional intelligence over IQ, and 61% of employers are more likely to promote workers with high emotional intelligence than candidates with high IQ (Hunt, 2011). “Emotional intelligence is one of hundreds of parts of our personality. Is it the most important predictor of success in life or work? It probably is part of “success”, but it is not the sole ingredient, nor is it the most important one, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004),
That demonstrates the extent to which emotional intelligence is valued now
When EI was introduced, it was conceptualised as part of general intelligence. However, since the publication of the book Emotional Intelligence in 1995 by Daniel Goleman, interest in the subject has erupted, and now, different conceptualisations of EI have emerged.
Most researchers categorise EI into three models: the ability model, the trait model, and the mixed model (Kanesan and Fauzan, 2019). Others, for example, Faltas (2017), categorise it into three major models with a variation: Goleman’s EI performance model, Bar-On’s EI competencies model, and Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s EI ability model.
EI is an emerging field. It will take a long time for the knowledge to converge as research continues. Now there are more than thirty different widely used measures of EI (O’Connor et al., 2019). For this reason, it is important to understand how the concept of EI you are dealing with fits in with what you want to test to enable you choose the appropriate measure.
The Ability Model of EI
Drs Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer, who created and defined it as a capability. “Emotional intelligence is a person’s capability to perceive, express, understand, use, and manage emotions in oneself (personal intelligence) and in others (social intelligence), which leads to adaptive behaviour” (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
According to this model, to be emotionally intelligent, a person needs to possess certain competencies. In this regard, EI has been divided into “four branches” (Mayer, 2002):
- The ability to recognise your emotions and those of those around. For example, knowing how you and those around you are feeling.
- The ability to facilitate your emotions by knowing what to do with it.
- The ability to understand the meaning of emotions, particularly complex emotions and their transitions through the different stages.
- The ability to manage your emotions and those of others.
The Ability EI model is maximal-performance-based, and so it is measured using a maximal performance test designed to measure cognitive abilities regarded as being involved in the perception, management, and understanding of emotions. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCIT) is used for the test. The test is designed to measure intelligence like 1Q tests since EQ is regarded as a specific form of intelligence.
It is the most researched and supported measure of ability EI (O’Connoret al., 2019) and is also known as the maximum performance-based model, cognitive-emotional ability EI, or information processing EI.
The Trait Model
The trait EI views EI as a disposition like personality traits and is defined“….as a constellation of emotional perceptions assessed via questionnaires and rating scales” (Petrides et al., 2018). It is also known as trait emotional self-efficacy (Petrides et al., 2018).
The most used Trait emotional intelligence measure is The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), which measures 15 emotional traits concerning well-Being, self-control, emotionality and sociability. It is a self-assessment or self-report.
Trait EI measures tend to measure typical behaviour rather than maximal performance. They tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviours in a range of situations (Petrides and Furnham, 200o). Individuals high in various measures of trait EI have been found to have high levels of self-efficacy regarding emotion-related behaviours and tend to be competent at managing and regulating emotions in themselves and others. Also, since trait EI measures tend to measure typical behaviour rather than maximal performance, they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviours in a range of situations (Petrides and Furnham, 2000). Recent meta-analyses have linked trait EI to a range of work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Miao et al., 2017), and Job Performance (O’Boyle et al., 2011).
Kluemper, D. H. (2008). Trait emotional intelligence: The impact of core-self evaluations and social desirability. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(6), 1402–1412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.12.008
The Mixed Model EI
The mixed model of EI can be a mixture of the ability and trait EIs, but the most prominent are the ones developed by Reuven Bar-On and Daniel Goleman. The mixed models are assumed to incorporate a wide range of personality variables.
They are measured using questionnaires that test a combination of traits, social skills and competencies that overlap with other personality measures in the form of self-report. Some may include 360-degree forms of assessment. (self-report combined with multiple peer reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates).
Bar-On Mixed Model
The Bar-On model, developed by Reuven Bar-On, is a w mixed model of EI. It comprises 15 interrelated emotional and social competencies.
According to this model, “emotional-social intelligence is a cross section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands” (Bar-On, 2006).
Bar-On’s model of emotional intelligence refers to performance potential rather than performance itself, being process-oriented rather than results-oriented.
The Bar-On “Emotional Quotient Inventory” (EQi) created by Reuven Bar-On is the most commonly used test for this model, and it is also without criticism by some researchers (Gutiérrez-Cobo, Cabello and Fernández-Berrocal, 2017).
The Emotional Quotient Inventory 2.0 (EQ-i 2.0) and the EQ-360 were developed to assess the Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence. For more information on this measure, please follow this link for the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations
The Goleman Model
A New Layered Model of Emotional Intelligence
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5981239
Goleman’s original model consisted of five competencies. Further study subsequently reduced it to four competencies, leaving out motivation and skills to twenty (Boyatzis and McKee 2002).
Self-awareness
- Awareness of one’s emotions.
- Accurate self-assessment
- Self-confidence
Self-management
- Emotional self-control
- Transparency
- Adaptability
- Orientation of efforts
- Initiative
- Optimism
Social awareness
- Empathy
- Organizational awareness
- Orientation of services
Relationship management
- Managing others
- Inspired leadership
- Influence
- Conflict management
- Teamwork and collaboration
The Goleman’s model is very popular among executives, corporate and leadership management programmes that seek to use the theories of Emotional Intelligence to maximise their human resources.
Goleman’s model can be measured based on:
- The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) was created in 1999, revised as the Emotional and Competency Inventory (ESCI) in 2007.
- Emotional Intelligence Appraisal was developed in 2001 as a self-report. This model has been criticised as simply “popular psychology”
The Choice of Measure of EI
None of the measures of EI is without criticism, but we are not dealing with that here because this article is about goals and self-regulation.
The important question is which one of these measures you choose, because measuring EI has become a part of many management and personal development programmes. O’Connor et al (2019), in their critical review of measures of EI, have made the following observations:
- When the measure is concerned with emotional abilities and competencies, and theoretical understanding of EI is required, the appropriate measure is Ability EI. For example, research has shown that people who possess high emotional intelligence tend to be competent decision makers, problem solvers and negotiators because of their high abilities to perceive and understand emotions. Also, research has shown associations between ability EI and social competence in children
- Trait EI is the appropriate measure when what is tested is behavioural tendencies and self-efficacy. More generally, research tends to show that trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles in response to life stressors.
- When a broad test is required, then the mixed measure is appropriate. They are generally used in work environments, since they are often designed to predict and improve workplace performance and are often focused on emotional competencies that correlate with professional success.
The Nine-Layer Model of Emotional Intelligence
Source: A New Layered Model on Emotional Intelligence (Drigas and Papoutsi, 2023).
The EI pyramid by Drigas and Papoutsi (2023) is a comprehensive nine-layered depiction of EI based on the three concepts of EI already discussed above. It is also based on the concepts of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences, part of the multiple intelligences theory by Howard Gardner, a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education,n published in Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences in 1983.
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to relate well with people and manage relationships. It helps to connect quickly with people by understanding their emotions and motivations and determining how best to interact with them. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability of an individual to understand and analyse their thoughts, emotions, beliefs, desires, and goals. It’s the intelligence about oneself. Among the seven types of intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence is considered the rarest.
Emotional intelligence is a skill that can be learned and developed. The EI pyramid provides a more structured hierarchical level showing where a person is at each level of emotional intelligence. This can be used for intervention for developing and strengthening individuals Levels of EI until a person reaches the top level of emotional development, which is emotional unity.
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Ozhiganova, Galina. (2018). SELF-REGULATION AND SELF-REGULATORY CAPACITIES: COMPONENTS, LEVELS, MODELS. RUDN Journal of Psychology and Pedagogics. 15. 255-270. 10.22363/2313-1683-2018-15-3-255-270.
Zimmerman, B.J., 2008. Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American educational research journal, 45(1), pp.166-183.
McClelland, M., Geldhof, J., Morrison, F., Gestsdóttir, S., Cameron, C., Bowers, E., Duckworth, A., Little, T. and Grammer, J., 2018. Self-regulation. Handbook of life course health development, pp.275-298.
Heatherton T. F. (2011). Neuroscience of self and self-regulation. Annual review of psychology, 62, 363–390. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131616
BAUMEISTER, R. F. AND HEATHERTON, T. F.
Self-Regulation Failure: An Overview
In-text: (Baumeister and Heatherton, 1996)
Baumeister, R. and Heatherton, T., 1996. Self-Regulation Failure: An Overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7(1), pp.1-15.
SHELDON, K. M. AND ELLIOT, A. J.
Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model.
In-text: (Sheldon and Elliot, 1999)
Your Bibliography: Sheldon, K. and Elliot, A., 1999. Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), pp.482-497.
. SHELDON, K. M. AND HOUSER-MARKO, L.
Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness: Can there be an upward spiral?
In-text: (Sheldon and Houser-Marko, 2001)
Your Bibliography: Sheldon, K. and Houser-Marko, L., 2001. Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness: Can there be an upward spiral?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), pp.152-165.
BIJL, .. J. V. D. AND SHORTRIDGE-BAGGETT, L. M.
The theory and measurement of the self-efficacy construct
In-text: (Bijl and Shortridge-Baggett, 2001)
Your Bibliography: Bijl, .. and Shortridge-Baggett, L., 2001. The theory and measurement of the self-efficacy construct. [online] ResearchGate. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11490001_The_theory_and_measurement_of_the_self-efficacy_construct> [Accessed 10 August 2022].
COLLA, R., WILLIAMS, P., OADES, L. G. AND CAMACHO-MORLES, J.
A New Hope” for Positive Psychology: A Dynamic Systems Reconceptualisation of Hope Theory
In-text: (Colla, Williams, Oades and Camacho-Morles, 2022)
Your Bibliography: Colla, R., Williams, P., Oades, L. and Camacho-Morles, J., 2022. A New Hope” for Positive Psychology: A Dynamic Systems Reconceptualisation of Hope Theory. [online] Frontiers in Psychology. Available at: <https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.809053/full> [Accessed 8 August 2022].
MOTIVATION: DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION
In-text: (Motivation: Definition and explanation, n.d.)
Your Bibliography: The Oxford Review – Encyclopaedia of Terms. n.d. Motivation: Definition and explanation. [online] Available at: <https://oxford-review.com/oxford-review-encyclopaedia-terms/motivation-definition-explanation/> [Accessed 4 August 2022].
APA DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOLOGY – MOTIVATION
In-text: (APA Dictionary of Psychology – Motivation, n.d.)
Your Bibliography: Dictionary.apa.org. n.d. APA Dictionary of Psychology – Motivation. [online] Available at: <https://dictionary.apa.org/motivation> [Accessed 1 August 2022].
Your Bibliography: Selfdeterminationtheory.org. n.d. Theory Overview. [online] Available at: <https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/> [Accessed 9 May 2022].
Werner, Kaitlyn & Milyavskaya, Marina & Koestner, Richard. (2018). Examining the role of approach-avoidance and autonomous-controlled motivation in predicting goal progress over time. 10.31234/osf.io/bs28w.
Seijts, Gerard & Latham, Gary. (2001). The Effect of Distal Learning, Outcome, and Proximal Goals on a Moderately Complex Task. Journal of Organisational Behaviour. 22. 291 – 307. 10.1002/job.70.
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980. Psychological bulletin, 90(1), 125.
In-text: (Milyavskaya and Werner, 2018)
Your Bibliography: Milyavskaya, M. and Werner, K., 2018. Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research. [online] ResearchGate GmbH. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324171443_Goal_Pursuit_Current_state_of_affairs_and_directions_for_future_research> [Accessed 16 April 2022].
NEILL, J.
Goal setting and goal striving
In-text: (Neill, 2017)
Your Bibliography: Neill, J., 2017. Goal setting and goal striving. [online] Slideshare.net. Available at: <https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/goals-79467682> [Accessed 18 April 2022].
MILYAVSKAYA, M. AND WERNER, K.
Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research
In-text: (Milyavskaya and Werner, 2018)
Your Bibliography: Milyavskaya, M. and Werner, K., 2018. Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research. [online] ResearchGate GmbH. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324171443_Goal_Pursuit_Current_state_of_affairs_and_directions_for_future_research> [Accessed 16 April 2022].
Laura Bortoli, Maurizio Bertollo, Silvia Comani & Claudio Robazza (2011) Competence, achievement goals, motivational climate, and pleasant psychobiosocial states in youth sport, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29:2, 171-180, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2010.530675
Chazan, D. J., Pelletier, G. N. and Daniels, L. M. (2022) ‘Achievement Goal Theory Review: An Application to School Psychology’, Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 37(1), pp. 40–56. doi: 10.1177/08295735211058319.
Competence, achievement goals, motivational climate, and pleasant psychobiosocial states in youth sport
In-text: (Bortoli, Bertollo, Comani and Robazza, 2010)
Your Bibliography: Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Comani, S. and Robazza, C., 2010. Competence, achievement goals, motivational climate, and pleasant psychobiosocial states in youth sport. [online] Taylor & Francis Online – Journal of Sport Sciences. Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2010.530675> [Accessed 21 April 2022].
CAMPBELL, M. M.
Motivational Systems Theory And The Academic Performance Of College Students
In-text: (Campbell, 2007)
In-text: (Campbell, 2007)
Your Bibliography: Campbell, M., 2007. Motivational Systems Theory And The Academic Performance Of College Students. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 4(7), pp.2-3.
Stavrou NAM, Psychountaki M, Georgiadis E, Karteroliotis K and Zervas Y (2015) Flow theory – goal orientation theory: positive experience is related to athlete’s goal orientation. Front. Psychol. 6:1499. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01499
In-text: (Berkman, 2018)
Berkman, E., 2018. The neuroscience of goals and behavior change.. [online] National Library of Medicine – National Centre for Biotechnology Information. Available at: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5854216/> [Accessed 8 April 2022].
In-text: (Harwood and Thrower, 2020)
Harwood, C. and Thrower, S., 2020. Achievement Goal Theory. [online] Science Direct. Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/achievement-goal-theory#:~:text=Achievement%20goal%20theory%20holds%20that,any%20point%20during%20task%20engagement.> [Accessed 10 April 2022].
Why We Set Unattainable Goals
In-text: (Yang, Stamatogiannakis, Chattopadhyay and Chakravarti, 2021)
Yang, H., Stamatogiannakis, A., Chattopadhyay, A. and Chakravarti, D., 2021. Why We Set Unattainable Goals. [online] Harvard Business Review. Available at: <https://hbr.org/2021/01/why-we-set-unattainable-goals> [Accessed 8 April 2022].
In-text: (Schwantes, 2018)
Schwantes, M., 2018. Science Says Only 8 Percent of People Actually Achieve Their Goals. Here Are 7 Things They Do Differently. [online] Inc.com. Available at: <https://www.inc.com/marcel-schwantes/science-says-only-8-percent-of-people-actually-achieve-their-goals-here-are-7-things-they-do-differently.html?cid=landermore> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
: (Locke, Shaw, Saari and Latham, 1981)
Locke, E., Shaw, K., Saari, L. and Latham, G., 1981. APA PsycNet. [online] Psycnet.apa.org. Available at: <https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1981-27276-001> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
In-text: (Gifford, 2021)
Gifford, J., 2021. 52/17 updated – people are now working and breaking longer than before | DeskTime Blog. [online] DeskTime Insights. Available at: <https://desktime.com/blog/52-17-updated-people-are-now-working-and-breaking-longer-than-before/> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
Does music help us work better? It depends
In-text: (Gorvett, 2020)
Gorvett, Z., 2020. Does music help us work better? It depends. [online] Bbc.com. Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200317-does-music-help-us-work-it-depends> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
The neurochemistry of music
In-text: (Chanda and Levitin, n.d.)
Chanda, M. and Levitin, D., n.d. The neurochemistry of music. [online] Trends in Cognitive Sciences. Available at: <https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(13)00049-1#%20> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
The True Cost of Multi-Tasking
In-text: (Weinschenk, 2012)
Weinschenk, S., 2012. The True Cost of Multi-Tasking. [online] Psychology Today. Available at: <https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/brain-wise/201209/the-true-cost-multi-tasking> [Accessed 12 April 2022].
In-text: (Kurt, 2021)
Kurt, S., 2021. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory: Power, Achievement, and Affiliation – Education Library. [online] Education Library. Available at: <https://educationlibrary.org/mcclellands-three-needs-theory-power-achievement-and-affiliation/> [Accessed 13 April 2022].
Locke, E. and Latham, G., 2002. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), pp.705-717.
MILYAVSKAYA, M. AND WERNER, K.
Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research
In-text: (Milyavskaya and Werner, 2018)
Milyavskaya, M. and Werner, K., 2018. Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research. [online] ResearchGate GmbH. Available at:
The Powerful Combination Of Aligned Goals And Intentions
WANG, W., SONG, S., CHEN, X. AND YUAN, W.
When Learning Goal Orientation Leads to Learning From Failure: The Roles of Negative Emotion Coping Orientation and Positive Grieving
In-text: (Wang, Song, Chen and Yuan, 2021)
Wang, W., Song, S., Chen, X. and Yuan, W., 2021. When Learning Goal Orientation Leads to Learning From Failure: The Roles of Negative Emotion Coping Orientation and Positive Grieving. [online] Frontiers in Psychology. Available at: <https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.608256/full#:~:text=Individuals%20with%20a%20high%20learning,tasks%20(Dweck%2C%201999).> [Accessed 5 April 2022].
Grant, Anthony. (2020). An Integrated Model of Goal‐Focused Coaching: An Evidence‐Based Framework for Teaching and Practice. 10.1002/9781119656913.ch7.
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