“All successful people have a goal. No one can get anywhere unless he knows where he wants to go and what he wants to be or do.” —Norman Vincent Peale

There is a lot of literature and articles on goals, how to set and attain them. It is one of the most popular topics in personal and professional development and business planning. However, despite this, pursuing goals and achieving them is elusive to many people. The main reasons for this have already been discussed in Part 1 of these articles here.

This is Part 2 of our articles on how to pursue goals and attain them. They are divided into 12 parts. Parts 3-12 will follow accordingly in future. In Part 2, we offer the scientific definition and explain the key and related terms and the differences between them. In Part 3, we will discuss goal-setting theory and the most popular methods of setting goals today. Part 4 will examine the science and types of goals, while Part 5 will discuss the scientific approach to goals and key concepts. finally, Part 6 will conclude with how to pursue goals according to science in a way that will facilitate achievement.

What Are Goals and Why Are They So Important?

A few definitions of goals are given below:

• Meriam Webster defines a goal as “the end toward which effort is directed.” It cites “aim” as another word for it. The Oxford Learners Dictionaries defines it as “something that you hope to achieve” and cites the same word “aim” as another word for it.
• According to Latham & Locke (2002, p.705), goals are “the object or aim of an action, for example, to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit.” The study here was focused on goals in the context of performance. But most goals, especially individual goals, are based on intentions. We will look at the relationship between goals and intentions in later parts of these articles.
• Berkman, (2018) defines goals as “…..a desired future state (an end) coupled with a set of antecedent acts that promote the attainment of that end state“

Our Preferred Definition of a Goal

There is no general agreement among researchers on what a goal is. The reason for this may be that goals apply to all aspects of our lives. Consequently, the research on goals is diverse. However, since this article is about personal goals, we prefer the definition of a goal by Milyavskaya and Werner (2018). According to them, a goal is a “cognitive representation of a desired end state that a person is committed to attain“. This definition highlights the three key components of a goal, which relate to the concept of goal pursuit or stiving which we will be discussing in Part 4 of these articles. We will continue to use this definition in all our work and discussion of goals unless it is no longer relevant.

• Cognitive representation. This shows that a goal is a mental image of a desired future state, which can be used to make decisions that ultimately guide behaviour to achieve that state through a change in an individual’s behaviour. It also shows that a goal is different from a general behaviour, which can occur randomly or unconsciously.
• Desired end state. This is the object, concrete or abstract, that an individual wants to move toward or achieve. It is what drives the energy, encourages action or sustains motivation in the process towards achievement of the goal. It becomes the target that prevents us from engaging in aimless behaviours without any sense of meaning or purpose. In addition, as will be discussed in Part 3, there are different types of goals. Most goals focus on the results without considering the process of getting there. The use of the term state here is encompassing, implying the process, the actions and performance required to achieve the desired results.
• Commitment. This is what differentiates goals from wishes or fantasies. Commitment demonstrates intent and taking responsibility for the goal. Commitment helps you stick to your goals during the good times and the bad times when barriers get in the way. Two factors contribute to commitment: importance (expectancy incentives) and ability. In addition, personal goals here are those that are specifically and explicitly identified and endorsed by the individual, compared to goals that are assumed to exist or assigned by another person, such as a manager.

Motivation and Goals

A discussion on goals cannot be complete without mentioning motivation. Motivation is the fuel or psychological driving force that enables action towards the pursuit of goals. Motivation is of two types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from the process of pursuing goal because of its inherent satisfaction rather than the reward for achieving it. When a person is intrinsically motivated, he or she is moved to act for the fun or challenge, not because of external benefits, pressures, or rewards associated with the outcome. Extrinsic motivation refers to when we are driven to perform a behaviour or engage in an activity because we want to earn a reward or avoid punishment. The goal is pursued not because you enjoy it or find it satisfying, but because you expect to get something in return or avoid something unpleasant. For example, starting a business to make more money, not because of the satisfaction of becoming an entrepreneur. We will discuss motivation in subsequent articles.

Differences Between Goals, Objectives, Outcomes, and Intentions

Objectives

Objectives are sometimes used to mean goals, but they mean different things. Objectives are narrower than goals. They define the strategies and implementation steps that are used to achieve goals. While goals are broad, objectives are precise. The Chartered Management Institute (CMI) defines objectives as “…..statement which describes what an individual, team or organisation is hoping to achieve” (Setting Smart Objectives – CMI, 2020). According to the Chartered Management Institute, the requirements for objectives go by the acronym SMART, which means they need to be:

Specific – Enough to understand what is focused on.

Measurable – This helps to know whether they have been achieved or not

Achievable – Can it be achieved based on our capabilities and the resources available?

Realistic – Is it likely to be achieved based on facts, or is it just false hope?

Relevant – Is it relevant to you?

Time-based – A time period is specified for achieving the objective.

Objectives should specify the who, what, when, where, and why of achieving your goals, the precise steps to be taken to achieve them and how progress towards the goals will be measured.

The SMART Acronym and Management by Objectives (MBO)

The SMART acronym is used today in connection with setting goals rather than objectives, because the term “objective” is no longer a fanciful phrase in management literature. Objectives became popular because of the concept of Management by Objectives (MBO) developed by Peter Drucker in his ground-breaking book, “The Practice of Management” in 1954. Peter Drucker was a management thinker, professor, consultant and author. He is revered as the father of modern management for his contributions to management. However, there is no direct reference to SMART by Drucker in the book. He only mentions the measurement aspect of SMART. He talks about teamwork, team results, contributions, tangible and intangible business objectives, long-term and short-term goals, commitment, etc. He did not refer to SMART goals.

History of the SMART Acronym

The only known use of the term SMART occurs in the November 1981 issue of Management Review by George T. Doran, in an article entitled “There’s a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management goals and objectives.” Dr Doran was a professor, author, entrepreneur, consultant and former Director of Corporate Planning for Washington Water Power Company. So, Dr Doran is credited as the originator of the SMART acronym, which has become the “gold standard” for setting goals today.

Fast Company has made a clear distinction between goals and objectives as follows (Feliciano, 2008):

• A goal is a brief, clear statement of an outcome to be reached within a specified period, for example, 3-5 years.
• Goals are broad, general, tangible, and descriptive statements as they do not say how something is to be done, but what the results will be.
• Goals are measurable in terms of quality and quantity to enable assessments be made, whether they have been achieved.
• Goals are singular and stretch from the current state to the desired state

 Objectives should specify the who, what, when, where, and why of achieving your goals, the precise steps to be taken to achieve them and how progress towards the goals will be measured.

Outcomes

The American Psychological Association defines outcome in the following ways:

1. “The result of an experiment, treatment, intervention, or other event. For example, the test scores of students in a classroom who have been taught with a new lecture method comprise an outcome, as does a client’s condition after psychotherapy.”
2. “In game theory, the factor determining a particular set of payments, one set being paid to each participant.”
3. “In interdependence theory, the net profit or loss one derives from an interaction after all of one’s benefits and costs are considered.”
4. “In equity theory, the benefits people receive from their activities (e.g., pay, intrinsic gratification, recognition).”

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries define it as “the result or effect of an action or event”

So, a goal is an aim or the desired or expected endpoint or destination, while the outcome is the result which is the consequence of the actions taken to reach the goal. A goal is rooted in a plan while an outcome is rooted in action.

Definition of Outcome in Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a collection of techniques that model excellence. One of the pillars of NLP is “outcome orientation” because NLP is based on the idea that to achieve a goal, it is important to define and know the desired outcome. For this reason, in NLP, phrases like “desired outcome” or “well-formed outcome” are often used instead of goals, as a goal can be vague.

The Encyclopaedia of Systemic NLP defines outcomes as “According to Webster’s Dictionary, an outcome is “something that follows as a result or consequence.” The term ‘outcome,’ then, emphasises something which is the result of particular conditions or actions. Outcomes are not always positive or desired. “ Sometimes our actions lead to outcomes that are neither wanted nor intended.” It states that the desired outcome “is typically used as a general term meaning ‘what one intends to accomplish or attain.’” It refers to the desired state or goal that a person or organisation aspires to achieve. In short, desired outcomes are the answer to the question, “What do you want?” (Dilts and Delozier, 2000).

The notion of the desired outcome is even more appropriate because an outcome may result in what is not desired from our goals. The desired outcome clarifies the state of affairs that is expected to be attained.

Intentions

The American Psychological Association (APA) Dictionary of Psychology defines an intention as:

1. “a prior conscious decision to perform a behaviour. In experiments, the intention is often equated with the goals defined by the task instructions.”
2. more generally, any directedness in one’s thoughts or behaviours, whether or not this involves conscious decision making. —intentional adj.

In addition, according to the Word Type definition (What kind of word is this? Use Word Type to find out! n.d.), an intention is:

1. “A course of action that a person intends to follow.”
2. “The goal or purpose behind a specific action or set of actions.”

The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy states “Philosophical perplexity about intention begins with its appearance in three guises: intention for the future, as when I intend to complete this entry by the end of the month; the intention with which someone acts, as I am typing with the further intention of writing an introductory sentence; and intentional action, as in the fact that I am typing these words intentionally.”

The above definitions show that the term intention implies taking action. It is the reason many writers and experts suggest that setting intentions should replace “setting goals.” We will discuss intentions more in the latter parts of these articles.

References

References

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology – Outcome. [online] Available at: https://dictionary.apa.org/outcome [Accessed 18 Mar. 2022].

Berkman, E., 2018. The neuroscience of goals and behaviour change.. [online] National Library of Medicine – National Centre for Biotechnology Information. Available at: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5854216/> [Accessed 8 April 2022].

Chartered Management Institute. 2020. Setting Smart Objectives – CMI. [online] Available at: <https://www.managers.org.uk/knowledge-and-insights/resource/setting-smart-objectives/> [Accessed 6 June 2022].

Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a S.M.A.R.T. Way to Write Management’s Goals and Objectives. Management Review, 70, 35-36.

“Goal.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/goal. Accessed 14 Mar. 2022.

Feliciano, D., 2008. Do you know the difference between a goal and an objective?. [online] Fast Company. Available at: <https://www.fastcompany.com/776233/do-you-know-difference-between-goal-and-objective> [Accessed 14 March 2022].

Locke, E. and Latham, G., 2002. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), pp.705-717.

Milyavskaya, M. and Werner, K., 2018. Goal Pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research. [online] ResearchGate. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324171443_Goal_Pursuit_Current_state_of_affairs_and_directions_for_future_research> [Accessed 14 April 2022].

Oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. n.d. goal noun – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com. [online] Available at: <https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/goal> [Accessed 14 March 2022].

Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. (n.d.). Outcome. [online] Available at: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/outcome [Accessed 18 Mar. 2022].